Consonant Clusters

Processes

 * Reduction: the most frequent, longest lasting
 * Simplification: both elements are produced but in a non-adult-like manner
 * gliding, fronting, shaping: reoccur here
 * the most common is "gliding of approximates" (grin -> gwin)
 * use of reduction and simplification has an inverse relationship
 * Long, Fey, Channell 1998


 * Acquisition of the correct number of elements and the refinement of all cluster elements is important. A reason for the length of time to produce 3 element clusters may be the long in modifying substitutions for /r/ and /s/ well after the appropriate number of elements has been achieved (Smit 1980)
 * Epenthesis: insertion of a vowel (often a shwa) especially in borrowed words
 * Coalescence: reduced cluster contours freatures of the original consonants, like swim -> fim because (+fricative) + (+labial) = labial fricative (Dyson + Paden 1983)
 * Metathesis: ask -> aks. Negligible.

Deleted Element

 * glide or a liquid, (usually #c_) = deleted
 * stop or fricative (#_c) = deleted
 * Stop, fricative, or nasal (#_ _) = first element deletion

Sonority Principle
Phonemes: Maximal rise in sonority = reductions

(Chala 1999)

Homonymy
"when phonologicial conrasts are neutralized"; children target a particular word but due to phonological processes they creat a production identical to an existing word
 * Decreases near age 3; 2 year olds = reduction, 3 year olds = creation

Mastery
("Blue") (Elbert, McReynolds 1979)
 * 1) Both segments are omitted [u]
 * 2) Only one element is omitted [bu]
 * 3) Both elements are marked in some way [bwu]
 * 4) both elements are used appropriately [blu]

Summary

 * 1) 2 year olds can produce clusters but they may not be of the same form as the ambient language
 * 2) world finals generally appear earlier than word initials.
 * 3) 2 element clusters before 3 element. As to whether mastery of phonemes on their own occurs before mastering in a cluster, it's unknown
 * 4) Clusters with stops are generally acquired before clusters with fricatives
 * 5) Youngsters typically delete one element (reduction) and this process may be explained by principles of markedness and sonority
 * 6) Homonymy is a thing with youngsters; frequently because of reduction, but can occur during creation
 * 7) non-adult realizations also include simplification (the most common after reduction), epenthesis, coalesence, and metathesis (rare)
 * 8) Acquisition is gradual, with a typical (not all-or-nothing) developmental process. Word Initials may initially delete one member (one-element realization), then preserve both (or all) while producing one in a non-adult-like manner (2 element realization), and finally produce the cluster correctly (correct realization). Other developmental sequence are also possible, particularly for word finals.
 * 9) Relationship between reduction, simplification, and correct production: most youngsters reduce, then eventually use diminishes, Simplification increases while correct occurrences increase
 * 10) Despite the typical development sequence, acquisition is marked by reversals and revisions.